ACE 6.7 Syntax Report

5.1 Sentence coordination

Sentences can be coordinated by and and or. And refers to the logical conjunction, while or denotes the logical disjunction. The logical conjunction has a higher precedence than the disjunction. Both connectors are right-associative. The expression

A or B and C or D

is therefore ordered like

A ∨ ((B ∧ C) ∨ D)

To enable more combinations, we have introduced comma-and and comma-or. These expressions reverse the order of precedence. To achieve the order

A ∨ (B ∧ (C ∨ D))

we can write

A, or B, and C or D

A sentence coordination in general consists of a sentence coordination of a lower level (thus ensuring right-associativity) optionally followed by the respective connector and a sentence coordination of the same level (4).

4

SentenceCoord →
	SentenceCoord_1 ( CommaOr SentenceCoord )

SentenceCoord_1 →
	SentenceCoord_2 ( CommaAnd SentenceCoord_1 )

SentenceCoord_2 →
	SentenceCoord_3 ( Or SentenceCoord_2 )

SentenceCoord_3[-THAT] →
	TopicalisedSentence ( And SentenceCoord_3[-THAT] )

SentenceCoord_3[+THAT] →
	that TopicalisedSentence ( And SentenceCoord_3[+THAT] )


Example: A customer enters a card and a clerk enters a code and for every code that the customer enters the card is valid [.]
Example: [A man believes] that a dog barks and that a cat eats a cake [.]
Example: [A man believes] that a dog barks and that a cat eats a cake [.]

5.2 Topicalised sentences

To avoid scope ambiguities ACE uses the 'principle of surface order' which makes the scope of a quantifier uniquely predictable from the quantifier's position in the sentence. This interpretation principle says that the relative scope of a quantifier corresponds to its surface position. The scope opens at the textual position of the quantified noun phrase and extends to the end of the sentence. If sentences are coordinated, the scope of a quantifier extends only to the end of the sentence conjunct/disjunct containing the quantifier. The sample sentence commonly used to illustrate scope amguities

Every man loves a woman.

is therefore unambiguously interpreted in ACE as

∀ x: (man(x) ⇒ ∃ y: (woman(y) ∧ loves(x,y)))

We may, however, want to express the reverse interpretation

∃ y: (woman(y) ∧ ∀ x: (man(x) ⇒ loves(x,y)))

To achieve the latter interpretation, we have introduced two ACE constructions that allow the user to topicalise a quantifier (i.e. move it to the front of the sentence) and give it a wider scope. The global quantifiers there is/there are (10) and for every/for each (11, 12) expand their scope over the whole sentence. In ACE, the above interpretation can thus be expressed as

There is a woman and every man loves her.

or

There is a woman that every man loves.

The two readings of the sentence

A man loves every woman.

which are

∃ x: (man(x) ∧ ∀ y: (woman(y) ⇒ loves(x,y)))

∀ y: (woman(y) ⇒ ∃ x: (man(x) ∧ loves(x,y)))

can be made explicit in ACE as

There is a man who loves every woman.

which is equivalent to 'a man loves every woman' and 'for every woman a man loves her'. A topicalised sentence can start with an existential topic (7) or a universal topic (8). It needs, however, not be topicalised at all but can just be an ordinary composite sentence (9).

7

TopicalisedSentence →
	ExistentialTopic

Example: There is a card [.]

8

TopicalisedSentence →
	UniversalTopic SentenceCoord[-THAT]

Example: For every code there is a card that the code belongs to [.]

9

TopicalisedSentence →
	CompositeSentence

9a

TopicalisedSentence →
	ArithmeticalSentence

Topics consist of a global quantifier enhanced by a noun phrase coordination (i.e. a noun phrase or a coordination of noun phrases) and a VP coordination (a verb phrase or a coodination of verb phrases) or by an N' respectively. An existential topic (10) takes the existential global quantifier there is/there are and an NP coordination that has to be existentally quantified (+EXISTS) and must not be in an oblique case (+NOM).

With these restrictions, we prohibit sentences like

* There is he.

* There is him.

* There is the man.

* There is every customer.

We also prohibit the following

* There are John and Mary.

* There is a man. There are the man and a woman.

10

ExistentialTopic →
	ExistentialGlobalQuantor NPCoord[+NOM,+EXISTS,+THIRD]

Example: There is a card which is valid [.]
Example: There are a card and a code [.]
Example: There is a man [.]
Example: There is the man's dog [.]
Example: There is John's dog [.]
Example: There are a dog and a cat [.]
Example: There are a man and less than 3 dogs [.]
Example: There are a man and more than 3 dogs [.]

A universal global quantifier is only followed by an N' and not by a complete NP (* for every a code). This N' must be in the nominative case and can be either in singular (for every card) or plural (for all cards). Since every cannot be used with mass nouns (* every money), we use every in combination with countable nouns (either singular and plural), and all in combination with mass nouns and plural nouns.

11

UniversalTopic →
	UniversalGlobalQuantor N'[+NOM]

Example: For every card [there is a code.]
Example: For all money there is a bank. 
Example: For everybody X [a man sees X.]
Example: For all cards [there is a code.]

A universal topic can also start with a distributive global quantifier for each of. The distributive global quantifier must be followed by a complete plural NP coordination in nominative case (12).

12

UniversalTopic →
	DistributiveGlobalQuantor NPCoord[+PL,+NOM,+THIRD]

Example: For each of the customers [a clerk enters a code.]
Example: For each of a customer and a clerk [a code is valid.]
Example: Not for each of the customers [a clerk enters a code.]
Example: Not for each of a customer and a clerk [a code is valid.]

5.3 Composite sentences

13

CompositeSentence →
	SentenceInit SentenceCoord[+THAT]

Example: It is false that John waits [.]
Example: It is possible that John waits [.]
Example: It is not necessary that John waits [.]

A conditional sentence consists of an antecedent, introduced by if, and a consequent, introduced by then. Both the antecedent and the consequent must be complete sentence coordinations.

16

CompositeSentence →
	if SentenceCoord[-THAT] then SentenceCoord[-THAT]

Example: If a card is valid then its own code is valid and a customer enters the card [.]

15

CompositeSentence →
	Sentence[-WH]

17

ArithmeticalSentence →
	Term '=' Term | Term '\=' Term | Term '<' Term | Term '>' Term | Term '=<' Term | Term '>=' Term
 
Example: 3+X > 8
Example: L = {"a","bc","def"}

A simple declarative sentence consists of an NP coordination which is its subject. It must be in nominative case and must not be relative or interrogative. The VP coordination too must not contain any interrogative or relative arguments or modifiers, and its form must be finite.

18

Sentence →
	NPCoord[+NOM,+THIRD] VPCoord[-INF]

Example: A customer enters a green card into a slot [.]

18b

SentenceWithoutVPCoord →
	NPCoord[+NOM,+THIRD] VP[-INF]

6 Verb Phrases

6.1 Verb Phrase Coordination

A verb phrase coordination (35) does automatically take the feature value -COPULA. And, of course, both coordinated verb phrases have to agree in number and verb form (either finite or infinite).

35

VPCoord[-COPULA] →
	VPCoord_1 ( CommaOr VPCoord )

VPCoord_1 →
	VPCoord_2 ( CommaAnd VPCoord_1 )

VPCoord_2 →
	VPCoord_3 ( Or VPCoord_2 )

VPCoord_3 →
	VP ( And VPCoord_3 )

Usually, in an declarative context, a verb phrase consists of a V' only (37). However, if the verb phrase is negated, it is preceded by an auxiliary (or the copula respectively) and the negation not (38). In all cases, the verb form has to be infinite.

38

VP[-INF,-COPULA] →
	Auxiliary V'[+INF]

VP[-INF,+COPULA] →
	VModifiers Auxiliary[+BE] CopulaCompl VModifiers

Example: [A customer] does wait [.]
Example: [A customer] is seen by a clerk [.]
Example: [A customer] does not enter a card into a slot [.]
Example: [A customer] is not seen by a clerk [.]
Example: [A customer] can not enter a card [.]
Example: [A customer] cannot enter a card [.]
Example: [A customer] can't enter a card [.]
Example: [A customer] must enter a card [.]
Example: [A customer] has to enter a card [.]
Example: [Some customers] have to enter a card [.]
Example: [A customer] does not have to enter a card [.]
Example: [Some customers] do not have to enter a card [.]
Example: [Who] does not enter a card into a slot [?]
Example: is not in the garden
Example: is not a card
Example: [A card] is not valid [.]
Example: [London] can be sunny [.]
Example: [London] must be sunny [.]
Example: [London] can't be sunny [.]
Example: [London] does not have to be sunny [.]
Example: [Some countries] do not have to be sunny [.]

37

VP →
	V'[-BE]

Auxiliaries are split into two parts: Aux and AuxRest. The first part is the one that occurs at the sentence beginning in the case of questions.

130

Auxiliary →
	Aux AuxRest

Auxiliary/Aux →
	AuxRest

Example: is not
Example: does not have to

Verb phrase modifiers consist of adverbs and/or prepositional phrases. Adverbs are coordinated (with "and") whereas prepositional phrases are simply concatenated.

131

VModifiers →
	( AdverbCoord VModifiersX | PP VModifiers )

VModifiersX →
	( PP VModifiers )

Example: in a house in the living-room
Example: quickly and thoroughly during one day

6.2 Subcategorization of verbs

In ACE, verbs are subcategorised into intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, ditransitive verbs and the copula. Intransitive verbs take no complement and do not have a passive form.

43

ComplV →
	V[+ITR]

Example: [A customer] waits [.]

Ditransitive verbs take two complements. Rule 48 comes in two versions. Rule 48b is the version with a preposition. Rule 48a is the version with two NPs.

48b

ComplV →
	V[+DITR] NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD] Preposition NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD]

Example: [A man] gives a book to a girl [.]

84c

ComplV[+BE] →
	V[+DITR] Preposition NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD] by NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD]

Example: [A book] is sent to Mary by John [.]
Example: [A direct object] is sent an indirect object by a subject [.]
Example: [It] is sent to her by John [.]
Example: [It] is sent to Mary by him [.]

84d

ComplV[+BE] →
	V[+DITR] NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD] by NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD]

Example: [Mary] is sent a book by John [.]
Example: [An indirect object] is sent a direct object by a subject [.]
Example: [Mary] is sent it by John [.]
Example: [Mary] is sent him by John [.]
Example: [Mary] is sent a book by her [.]

Transitive verbs take one complement.

45

ComplV →
	V[+TR] NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD]

Transitive verbs can also be in passive. In this case the participle form of the verb is used and the verb is surrounded by 'is' and 'by'. The only difference with the active form of the verb is that the arguments are inverted in the predicate condition.

45a

ComplV[+BE] →
	V[+TR] by NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD]

Example: [John] is seen by Mary [.]
Example: [John] is not seen by Mary [.]
Example: [John] is quickly seen by Mary [.]
Example: [Some men] are seen by Mary [.]
Example: [Are some men] seen by Mary [?]
Example: * There is a man who Mary is seen by.
Example: [A book] can be written by a man [.]
Example: [Are some men] seen by Mary [?]
Example: [Can a book] be written by a man [?]

48a

ComplV →
	V[+DITR] NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD] NPCoord[-NOM,+THIRD]

Example: [A man] gives a girl a book [.]

The copula can take adjective phrase coordinations (is taller than his brother), noun phrase coordinations that are non-relative and non-pronominal (is a customer), prepositional phrases (is in the garden), and query pronouns (is where?) as its complement (52).

52

CopulaCompl →
	APCoord | NPCoord[-NOM,-R,+THIRD] | PP[-R] | AdverbCoord[+Q]

Example: [A card is] valid [.]
Example: [John is] a customer [.]
Example: [A card is] in a slot [.]
Example: [A code is] 1234 [.]
Example: [A text is] "abcdef" [.]
Example: [What is] when [?]

A verb (and its complements) can optionally be modified by an adverb coordination preceding the verb and/or by verbal modifiers following the verb and its complements (41). Such verbal modifiers (adjuncts) can be adverb coordinations, or prepositional phrases. A modifier is either a PP or an adverb. Adverb(s) can precede or follow the verb, while PPs always follow the verb.

41

V' →
	VModifiers ComplV VModifiers

Transitive verbs can take a sentential complement, marked by that.

41b

V' →
	VModifiers V[+TR] SentenceCoord[+THAT]

Example: [John] knows that Mary sleeps [.]
Example: [John] does not know that Mary sleeps [.]

Transitive verbs can be used as control verbs that take the preposition to and a verb phrase as their complement.

41c

V' →
	VModifiers V[+TR] to VP[+INF]

Example: [John] wants to run [.]

7 Noun Phrases

A noun phrase coordination can consist of the intermediate category that we call 'unmarked NP coordination' either preceded (53) or not by the distributive marker each of (54). A distributive noun phrase coordination is always singular (+SG) as a whole, but its distributive marker can only precede a non-negative unmarked NP coordination that is plural and non-universally quantified (53). Noun phrases like * each of no customer, * each of a customer or * each of every customer do not make sense. We use the distributive marker each of, as well as its global counterpart for each of (12), to resolve plural ambiguities. Unmarked NP coordinations that are not preceded by a distributive marker have no restrictive feature values (54).

53

NPCoord[+SG]/- →
	DistributiveMarker UnmarkedNPCoord[-NOM,-FORALL,+PL]

Example: each of some customers
Example: each of them

54

NPCoord/- →
	UnmarkedNPCoord

Example: some customers
Example: he
Example: they
Example: a card that is valid

A noun phrase coordination can be a gap if it has been moved to the front of the sentence in a question.

56

NPCoord/NPCoord →
	[]

If an unmarked NP coordination is an actual coordination of noun phrases, then it is automatically assigned plural number (+PL). Interrogative, relative, negative or universally quantified NPs cannot be coordinated in ACE; hence the -WH, -NEG and -FORALL restriction in the LHS and RHS of rule. Simple (not coordinated) noun phrases do not underlie such restrictions.

57

UnmarkedNPCoord[+PL,-FORALL,-NEG,-WH] →
	NP[-FORALL,-NEG,-WH] and UnmarkedNPCoord[-FORALL,-NEG,-WH]

UnmarkedNPCoord →
	NP

Example: a card and a code and a customer
Example: [John sees] Mary and more than 2 men [.]
Example: [John sees] Mary and less than 2 men [.]
Example: * [John sees] Mary and every man [.]

58

NothingButNP →
	N'[-SG] | PropernameNP

59a

NP[-PRO] →
	no N but NothingButNP

Example: Nothing but men [wait .]
Example: [A man enters] nothing but cards [.]
Example: [John eats] nothing but raw and expensive meat [.]
Example: [John likes] nothing but Mary [.]

Constructs the DOM for the then-part of the implication in "nothing but" sentences. Note that named(.) is not included in the DOM. The type of X (either var or named(.)) must be known at the point when this constructor is called. In general, a noun phrase consists of a specifier followed by an N' (59).

59

NP[-PRO] →
	Specifier N'

Example: a card X
Example: some water
Example: the card that is valid
Example: the card of John
Example: every card
Example: whose card
Example: which card
Example: [a customer] a card of who [is valid enters a code.]
Example: the card of which customer
Example: the card of who
Example: which card of which customer
Example: 4 kg of apples
Example: at most 3 l of milk
Example: 2l of water [flows.]
Example: 2l of water [flow.]

Pronouns (62), proper names and variables (63) are also self-contained noun phrases. Proper names always start with a capital letter. They can be used anaphorically, and they are in the lexicon. Variables also start with a capital letter, but they are not in the lexicon. Variables can be used anaphorically when used in an apposition or as a self-contained NP.

62

NP[+PRO] →
	Pronoun

Every NP is a proper name, a variable, or a term.

63

NP[-PRO,-WH] →
	PropernameNP ( RelativeClauseCoord ) | VariableNP | Term

69a

PropernameNP →
	Propername

Nouns can be optionally modified by a preceding adjective coordination and/or, following the noun, an apposition coordination, an of-PP or a relative clause coordination (64).

64

N' →
	( AdjectiveCoord ) N ( VariableApposition ) ( of NPCoord[+THIRD] | RelativeClauseCoord )

Example: a red and blue card X of a customer
Example: a red and blue card X which is valid

7.1 Specifiers

In ACE, specifiers can be determiners, possessive NP coordinations or number phrases. In a measurement noun phrase, however, the specifier consists of a number phrase (2, at least 3) followed by a measurement noun (kg, l, min), and the preposition of. Recursive Saxon Genitive is not supported.

66

Specifier →
	Determiner | PositiveIntegerPhrase | PossessiveNP | PositiveNumberPhrase MeasurementNoun of

Example: the
Example: every
Example: some
Example: the clerk's
Example: at least 3
Example: 5
Example: 3l of
Example: * a clerk's customer's

A positive number phrase consists of a positive number which is optionally preceded by a generalised quantor.

67

PositiveNumberPhrase →
	GeneralisedQuantor PositiveNumber

Example: [John has] 6 [kg of apples.]
Example: [John has] at most 5 [kg of apples.]
Example: [John has] at least 3.6 [kg of salt.]

68

PositiveIntegerPhrase →
	GeneralisedQuantor PositiveInteger

Example: 3 [men wait.]
Example: at most 6 [men wait.]
Example: * at least 0 [men wait.]
Example: at most 1 [man waits.]
Example: * at most 1 [men wait.]

7.2 Variables

Variables in apposition stand immediately after the nouns to which they are attached (see 64). Variables can be any upper case letter followed by zero or more digits.

69

VariableApposition →
	Variable

Example: [A man] X [waits.]
Example: [A man] M23 [waits.]

69b

VariableNP(-FORALL) →
	Variable

Example: X
Example: K54

7.3 Possessive Noun Phrases

The specifier of a noun phrase can be a possessive noun phrase. Possessive noun phrases are either noun phrases (a rich man X) that are followed by a Saxon Genitive marker (i.e. so-called genitive noun phrases), or possessive pronouns (his, his own).

76

PossessiveNP →
	whose | PossessivePronoun | GenitiveNP

77

GenitiveNP →
	GenitiveSpecifier GenitiveN' SaxonGenitiveMarker

Example: the man 's [dog barks.]
Example: a man 's [dog barks.]
Example: 5 men 's [dog barks.]
Example: everybody 's [dog barks.]
Example: [There is] the man 's [card.]
Example: [There is] a man 's [card.]
Example: [Mary likes] a man 's [fast car.]

78

GenitiveNP →
	PropernameNP SaxonGenitiveMarker

GenitiveNP →
	VariableNP SaxonGenitiveMarker

Example: John 's [card is valid.]
Example: [There is a man X.] X 's [card is valid.]
Example: Jimmy's [dog barks.]
Example: [Mary likes] John 's [fast car.]

Note that GenitiveNP functions as an existentially qualifying determiner.

82

GenitiveSpecifier →
	Determiner | PositiveIntegerPhrase

Example: A [man's dog barks.]
Example: Some [men's dog barks.]
Example: 5 [men's dog barks.]

75

GenitiveN' →
	(AdjectiveCoord) N (VariableApposition)

Example: [A] rich and famous man X ['s dog barks.]

7.4 Arithmetic Terms

Arithmetic terms are treated as normal NPs. Every operator is left-associative. Every operator with the exception of '&' must be used in numerical context, '&' requires string context.

The operator precedence levels are:

1. ^

2. * /

3. + - &

140

Term →
	Term1

Term1 →
	Term2 ( Term1_Tail )

Term1_Tail →
	'+' Term1 | '-' Term1 | '&' Term1

Example: 1234
Example: "abc" & "def"
Example: 5*X - 4 - 5

141

Term2 →
	Term3 ( Term2_Tail )

Term2_Tail →
	'*' Term2 | '/' Term2

Example: 1234
Example: X * Y * 3 * 5
Example: X / 4

142

Term3 →
	Term4 ( Term3_Tail )

Term3_Tail →
	'^' Term3

Example: X ^ 4

143

Term4 →
	AtomicTerm | '(' Term ')' | '[' TermList ']' | '{' TermList '}'

Example: 1234
Example: ("abc" & "def")
Example: [1,2,3]
Example: {"a",5,X}

144

TermList →
	( Term | Term ',' TermList )

Example: 1,2,3

145

AtomicTerm →
	String | Integer | Real | PropernameNP | VariableNP

Example: "abc"
Example: 12
Example: 3.14
Example: John
Example: X

8 Prepositional Phrases

There are two types of prepositional phrases in ACE: ordinary prepositional phrases (84) and of-PPs (64). Ordinary prepositional phrases consist of a preposition followed by an NP coordination (84). Note that the prepositional phrase as a whole is always non-pronominal (-PRO). This is relevant for a prepositional phrase containing a pronoun as its NP which is the complement of a transitive phrasal verb. Rule 45 states that only non-pronominal complements can stand after the phrasal particle and prohibits sentences like

A customer looks-up a code.

* A customer looks-up it.

If the complement is a prepositional phrase, it can stand in the end position even if its NP is a pronoun:

A boy looks-up to a famous actor.

A boy looks-up to him.

This means that the pronominal feature is not passed on from an NP to its dominating PP and prepositional phrases are always non-pronominal.

When a prepositional phrase has been moved to the front of a question, it leaves a gap behind (85). Note that, in an implementation, rule (85) can get into an infinite loop, if it is parsed in combination with rule (41) and its gap feature is not properly restricted. An infinite number of emtpy verb modifiers (adjuncts) would be generated in this case.

84

PP[-PRO] →
	Preposition NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: into a slot
Example: to a clerk
Example: with a card and a code

85

PP/PP →
	[].

9 Relative Clauses

Rule (64) defines at which position relatives clauses occur within an N'. Relative clauses can be coordinated (88). Relative clauses follow the same coordination rules as clauses, with appropriate hierarchy for or, and with and without comma.

88

RelativeClauseCoord →
	RelativeClauseCoord_1 ( CommaOr RelativeClauseCoord )

RelativeClauseCoord_1 →
	RelativeClauseCoord_2 ( CommaAnd RelativeClauseCoord_1 )

RelativeClauseCoord_2 →
	RelativeClauseCoord_3 ( Or RelativeClauseCoord_2 )

RelativeClauseCoord_3 →
	RelativeClause ( And RelativeClauseCoord_3 )

Example: [a card] that is green and that is valid

A relative clause can either be introduced by the complementizer that (89, 91) or by a relative NP coordination or PP (90, 93). The constituent to which a relative clause refers can either be its subject (89–91), or it can be a complement or adjunct (93). If it is a complement or an adjunct, like in rule 93, then it has been moved from the VP of the relative clause and has left a corresponding gap, namely an NP coordination in an oblique case or a PP, which cannot be interrogative or relative. Furthermore, it is followed by the subject of the relative clause (a non-relative NP coordination in nominative case).

89

RelativeClause →
	that VP[-INF]

Example: [a customer] that enters a card

91

RelativeClause →
	that NPCoord[-R,+NOM,+THIRD] VP[-INF]/NPCoord[-WH,-NOM]

Example: [A card] that a customer enters

90

RelativeClause →
	NPCoord[+R,+NOM,+THIRD] VP[-INF]

RelativeClause →
	NPCoord[+R,-NOM,+THIRD] NPCoord[-R,+NOM,+THIRD] VPCoord[-INF]/NPCoord[-WH,-NOM]

Example: [a table] which is green
Example: [a customer] who enters a card
Example: [a customer] whose card is valid
Example: [A card] which a customer enters
Example: [A man] who a customer sees
Example: whose brother he sees

93

RelativeClause →
	PP[+R] NPCoord[-R,+NOM,+THIRD] VP[-INF]/PP[-WH]

Example: at which he looks
Example: at each of which he looks

10 Adjective Phrases / Adverb Phrases

Adjective phrase coordinations (94a, 94b) have a predicative usage only, i.e. they function as the complement of the copula only (52). Attributive usage, modifying a noun (64), is only possible with bare adjective coordinations (101).

Only adjective phrases that do not contain a noun phrase are allowed to be coordinated with "and".

94a

APCoord →
	APCoordX | APItr | APTr

Example: more important and rich
Example: valid
Example: more important than Mary
Example: as important as Bill
Example: fond-of Mary
Example: more fond-of Mary than Bill
Example: as fond-of Mary as of Sue

94b

APCoordX →
	APItr ( and APCoordX )

Example: more important and rich

An adjective phrase (AP) can either be an intransitive adjective (99) or a transitive adjective followed by an noun phrase (coordination) (100). Transitive adjective phrases receive the feature values which indicate whether they contain a negative or universally quantified noun phrase as their argument.

100

APTr →
	TransitiveAdjective NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [A man is] fond-of Mary [.]
Example: [A man is] interested-in an account [.]

Note that transitive adjectives must be followed by a noun phrase (coordination) which is linguistically not correct, since instead, they should be followed by a PP. We require the preposition of the PP to be attached to the adjective.

100a

APTr →
	TransitiveAdjective[+COMP] NPCoord[+THIRD] than NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [A man is] more fond-of Mary than Bill [.]

100b

APTr →
	TransitiveAdjective[+COMP] NPCoord[+THIRD] than Preposition NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [A man is] more fond-of Mary than of Bill [.]

100c

APTr →
	as TransitiveAdjective[+POS] NPCoord[+THIRD] as NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [A man is] as fond-of Mary as Bill [.]

100d

APTr →
	as TransitiveAdjective[+POS] NPCoord[+THIRD] as Preposition NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [A man is] as fond-of Mary as of Bill [.]

99

APItr[-FORALL,-NEG] →
	IntransitiveAdjective

Example: [A] green [card]
Example: [A card is] green [.]

96

APItr →
	IntransitiveAdjective[+COMP] than NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [a customer A is] more important than a customer B [.]

96b

APItr →
	as IntransitiveAdjective[+POS] as NPCoord[+THIRD]

Example: [a customer A is] as important as a customer B [.]

In attributive position (64), only non-comparative intransitive adjectives or coordinations of them (101) can occur.

101

AdjectiveCoord →
	IntransitiveAdjective ( and AdjectiveCoord )

Multiple adverbs must be conjoined by 'and' (not concatenated like PPs). An adverb coordination can either be a coordination of one or more non-interrogative (-Q) adverbs, a single interrogative adverb (102), or a gap left behind when an adjunct was moved to the front of a question (104). Note that non-interrogative adverbs are not allowed in copula constructions.

102

AdverbCoord[-Q] →
	Adverb ( and AdverbCoord[-Q] )

AdverbCoord[+Q] →
	WhAdverb ( and AdverbCoord[-Q] )

104

AdverbCoord/AdverbCoord →
	[]

11 Function Words

Function words are predefined and cannot be changed by the user.

151

Aux →
	( do | does | are | is | be | must | can | should | may )

152

AuxRest →
	( not | not provably | not provably not | has to | have to | not have to |
	be | have to be | has to be | not have to be | not be )

Only the following combinations of "Aux (...) AuxRest" are possible (the content of Aux is marked by square brackets):

 [does]
 [do]
 [is]
 [are]
 [be]
 [does] not
 [do] not
 [is] not
 [are] not
 [does] not provably
 [do] not provably
 [is] not provably
 [are] not provably
 [does] not provably not
 [do] not provably not
 [is] not provably not
 [are] not provably not
 [must]
 [] has to
 [] have to
 [does] have to
 [do] have to
 [does] not have to
 [do] not have to
 [must] be
 [] has to be
 [] have to be
 [does] have to be
 [do] have to be
 [does] not have to be
 [do] not have to be
 [can]
 [can] be
 [can] not
 [can] not be
 [should]
 [should] be
 [should] not
 [should] not be
 [may]
 [may] be
 [may] not
 [may] not be  

154

CommaAnd →
	, and

CommaOr →
	, or

And →
	and

Or →
	or

155

Determiner[+DEF] →
	the

Determiner[+EXISTS,+SG] →
	a | an

Determiner[+EXISTS,-SG] →
	some

Determiner[+FORALL,+NEG] →
	no

Determiner[+FORALL,+SG] →
	every | each

Determiner[+FORALL,+SG,+NEG] →
	not every | not each

Determiner[+FORALL,-SG] →
	all

Determiner[+FORALL,-SG,+NEG] →
	not all

Determiner[+EXISTS,-SG,+Q] →
	how many | how much

Determiner[+EXISTS,-MASS,+Q] → which | whose

156

DistributiveMarker →
	each of

157

DistributiveGlobalQuantor →
	for each of

158

UniversalGlobalQuantor →
	for | not for

Example: for [every]
Example: for [all]
Example: for [no]
Example: not for [every]

159

ExistentialGlobalQuantor →
	there is | there are

ExistentialGlobalQuestionQuantor →
	is there | are there

160

GeneralisedQuantor →
	( at most | at least | more than | less than | exactly )

Example: [John sees] at most [5 dogs.]

161

SentenceInit →
	it is false | it is not true | it is possible | it is not possible |
	it is necessary | it is not necessary | it is not provable | it is true |
	it is not false

Example: it is false [that ...]
Example: it is not true [that ...]
Example: it is possible [that ...]

162

SentenceQuestion →
	is it true | is it not true | is it false | is it not false

Example: Is it true [that ... ?]
Example: Is is not false [that ... ?]
Example: Is it false [that ... ?]
Example: Is it not true [that ... ?]

163a

PossessivePronoun →
	IrreflexivePossessivePronoun

Example: its
Example: their

163b

PossessivePronoun →
	ReflexivePossessivePronoun

Example: his own
Example: their own

163c

IrreflexivePossessivePronoun →
	its | his | her | his/her | her/his | their | your

163d

ReflexivePossessivePronoun →
	its own | his own | her own | his/her own | her/his own | their own |
	your own

164a

Pronoun →
	IrreflexivePronoun

Example: it
Example: him/her

164b

Pronoun →
	ReflexivePronoun

Example: herself
Example: themselves

164c

Pronoun(+Q) →
	WhPronoun

Example: what
Example: who

164d

Pronoun(+R) →
	RelativePronoun

Example: which
Example: who

164e

IrreflexivePronoun →
	it | he | she | he/she | she/he | they | you | him | her | him/her |
	her/him | them

164f

ReflexivePronoun →
	itself | himself | herself | himself/herself | herself/himself |
	themselves | yourself | yourselves

164g

WhPronoun →
	what | who

164h

RelativePronoun →
	which | who

165

SaxonGenitiveMarker →
	's | '

Example: [John]'s [car]
Example: [Thomas]' [dog]

167

WhAdverb →
	how | where | when

170

Variable →
	'A' | 'B' | ... | 'Z' | 'A1' | 'B1' | ... | 'Z1' | 'A2' | 'B2' | ...

12 Content Words

Content words are defined in the lexicon. The users can add their own words.

12.1 Adverbs

200

Adverb[+POS] →
	PositiveAdverb

Example: fast
Example: frequently

201

Adverb[+COMP] →
	ComparativeAdverb

Adverb[+COMP] →
	more PositiveAdverb

Example: faster
Example: more frequently

202

Adverb[+SUP] →
	SuperlativeAdverb

Adverb[+SUP] →
	most PositiveAdverb

Example: fastest
Example: most frequently

12.2 Intransitive Adjectives

203

IntransitiveAdjective[+POS] →
	PositiveIntransitiveAdjective

Example: rich
Example: expensive

204

IntransitiveAdjective[+COMP] →
	ComparativeIntransitiveAdjective

IntransitiveAdjective[+COMP] →
	more PositiveIntransitiveAdjective

Example: richer
Example: more expensive

205

IntransitiveAdjective[+SUP] →
	SuperlativeIntransitiveAdjective

IntransitiveAdjective[+SUP] →
	most SuperlativeIntransitiveAdjective

Example: richest
Example: most expensive

12.3 Transitive Adjectives

206

TransitiveAdjective[+POS] →
	PositiveTransitiveAdjective

Example: fond-of
Example: pessimistic-about

207

TransitiveAdjective[+COMP] →
	ComparativeTransitiveAdjective

TransitiveAdjective[+COMP] →
	more PositiveTransitiveAdjective

Example: fonder-of
Example: more pessimistic-about

208

TransitiveAdjective[+SUP] →
	SuperlativeTransitiveAdjective

TransitiveAdjective[+SUP] →
	most PositiveTransitiveAdjective

Example: fondest-of
Example: most pessimistic-about

12.4 Trunk Nouns for Anonymous Pronouns

Anonymous pronouns like 'something', 'everyone', and 'nobody' are processed as 'a -thing', 'every -one', and 'no -body', respectively. Rule 209 treats the trunks '-thing', '-body', and '-one' as nouns.

209

N →
	-thing | -body | -one

12.5 Countable Nouns

210

N[+SG] →
	SingularCountableNoun

Example: mouse
Example: credit-card

211

N[+PL] →
	PluralCountableNoun

Example: mice
Example: credit-cards

12.6 Mass Nouns

212

N[+MASS] →
	MassNoun

Example: water
Example: freedom

12.7 Measurement Nouns

213

MeasurementNoun[+SG] →
	SingularMeasurementNoun

Example: kg
Example: man-hour

214

MeasurementNoun[+PL] →
	PluralMeasurementNoun

Example: kg
Example: man-hours

12.8 Proper Names

216

Propername[+SG] →
	SingularPropername

Example: John
Example: Switzerland

217

Propername[+PL] →
	PluralPropername

Example: USA

12.9 Ditransitive Verbs

218

V[+DITR,-BE,-INF,-PL] →
	FiniteSingularDitransitiveVerb

Example: gives

219

V[+DITR,-BE,-INF,+PL] →
	InfinitePluralDitransitiveVerb

Example: give

220

V[+DITR,-BE,+INF] →
	InfinitePluralDitransitiveVerb

Example: give

221

V[+DITR,+BE] →
	PastParticipleOfDitransitiveVerb

Example: given

12.10 Transitive Verbs

222

V[+TR,-BE,-INF,-PL] →
	FiniteSingularTransitiveVerb

Example: sees

223

V[+TR,-BE,-INF,+PL] →
	InfinitePluralTransitiveVerb

Example: see

224

V[+TR,-BE,+INF] →
	InfinitePluralTransitiveVerb

Example: see

225

V[+TR,+BE] →
	PastParticipleOfTransitiveVerb

Example: seen

12.11 Intransitive Verbs

226

V[+ITR,-BE,-INF,-PL] →
	FiniteSingularIntransitiveVerb

Example: waits

227

V[+ITR,-BE,-INF,+PL] →
	InfinitePluralIntransitiveVerb

Example: wait

228

V[+ITR,-BE,+INF] →
	InfinitePluralIntransitiveVerb

Example: wait

12.12 Prepositions

229

Preposition →
	Preposition

Example: in
Example: from
Example: thoughout